Solar Photovoltaics: Circularity Solar Photovoltaics: Circularity

Solar Photovoltaics: Circularity

Circular economies in the electric power industry can significantly reduce the use of natural resources, extend the lifespan of equipment, and minimize resource loss through asset recovery. These efforts aim to advance sustainability goals and improve global environmental and social conditions. Renewable power sources, such as solar photovoltaics (PV), are fundamental to the circular economy. However, there are numerous opportunities to accelerate this transition and mitigate environmental and social impacts, including sustainable product design, proper maintenance, and responsible end-of-life (EOL) management. Innovative technology and policy solutions, partnerships across the value chain, and strategies to address equity and environmental justice are essential to advancing PV circularity as part of the energy transformation.

Source: EPRI 3002022231

Elements of a Solar PV Circular Economy

Circularity Strategies for PV Modules

Refuse/Rethink/Reduce

Reuse

Remanufacture

Recycle/Recover

Dispose

Source: Heath et al. 2022, 3002024944

As PV deployment continues and utility ownership of PV assets expands, value chain stakeholders have numerous opportunities to advance circularity. These strategies encompass the entire life cycle of solar PV modules and facilities, including:

Opportunities for PV Value Chain Stakeholders to Adopt Circular Strategies

Design and procurement: Prioritize sustainable design by using feedstock that incorporates recycled content, reducing the use of toxic materials, and designing reliable products with longer lifespans. Operation and maintenance: Implement preventive and condition-based maintenance to extend product and facility life. This includes detecting defects or early damage when they are potentially still repairable and restoring plant functionality and performance. EOL management: Develop repowering or decommissioning plans that detail the responsible disposition of materials to minimize waste and recover valuable materials.

By adopting these strategies, stakeholders can significantly contribute to the formation of a PV circular economy.

Recent advances in PV recycling technology are resulting in higher material recovery percentages. Progress is due to R&D innovations, investments in dedicated PV recycling facilities with equipment customized for PV, rising EOL PV module volumes, and facility scale up. Mechanical treatments like cutting, shredding, and grinding are a benchmark, optimized for costs, capacity, and output. However, many new pilot-scale technologies that incorporate advanced thermal, chemical, or mechanical treatments have demonstrated improvements in recycling quality and yield. Several recyclers report that they can now recover high-value materials like silicon and silver. For example, Tialpi’s 3,000 metric tons per year pilot plant in Italy can recover up to about 97% of the module mass using a combination of thermal, mechanical, and chemical processes. Recovery rates for each recovered material were reported for its predecessor, Full Recovery End of Life Photovoltaic (FRELP), a pilot-scale system which achieved an overall material recovery rate of 92%.

Material Recovery via Recycling

Source: Shaw et al. 2024

Mining

Parts Manufacture

Product Manufacture

ServiceProvider

Users

Landfill

Manufacturers

EOL service providers

Cross-cutting

R&D community

Owner, operator, and end-user

Markets for Materials

Plant Weight Breakdown

EOL Module Projections

Plant End-of-Life Options

EOL Regulatory Requirements

Options and Prices for EOL PV Module Dispositioning: U.S. Landscape

Solar PV Circularity Equity and Environmental Justice (EEJ) Impacts

R&D Needs

Additional EPRI PV Circular Economy Research

References

Recycling of CdTe modules is primarily performed by manufacturer First Solar with a recovery rate over 90%, including recovery of up to 95% of Cd and Te for use in manufacturing new PV modules (closed-loop recycling).

The amount of potentially recoverable material can be estimated based on the mass of EOL modules, the module composition, and the recovery rate. These characteristics have changed dramatically over time and will continue to change. This simple calculator provides a rough estimate of recoverable materials assuming 18.5 kg modules, FRELP recovery rates, and composition values within ranges reported in literature.

Source: Wambach et al. 2024, EPRI 3002024944, Cui et al. 2022, Nature Energy, 2020; EPRI, Alliance for Sustainable Energy, and Wambach-Consulting, 2017; First Solar, 2021

Sources: EPRI 3002028004, 3002028347, 3002014407, 3002019033; EPA; DTSC; Hawaii DOH; Washington State Legislature

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Strategies at the top of the inverted pyramid are preferred due to their higher economic, environmental, and social benefits. While recycling is a well-known circular economy pathway, other strategies like repair and reuse are often more advantageous when PV modules are still functional and safe to operate. These approaches keep materials in use longer, thereby avoiding the energy consumption, emissions, potential material loss, and costs associated with recycling. Disposal, on the other hand, is a linear economy option that results in total material loss. Although it is not a circular economy strategy, it remains a common practice in many PV markets today.

Recovering component materials with high purity is a significant challenge for recyclers. Impurities make it difficult to identify enhanced end markets for recovered materials, leading to downcycling of materials like silicon and glass. However, advancements in recycling treatments show promise for producing higher quality outputs, which would increase the market value of these materials.

c-Si MODULE

Refuse/Rethink/Reduce Design or use PV modules that enable circularity by decreasing the consumption of virgin materials, avoiding or decreasing the use of toxic and critical materials, making them easy to disassemble and reuse, and eliminating material waste, among other sustainable attributes. This also includes practices that extend product life and reduce module consumption.

Stakeholder opportunities:

CdTe MODULE

Decommissioning solar PV plants at EoL requires removal and management of a variety of materials. Based on an EPRI study for a conceptual 200 MWAC plant with substation, PV modules represent almost 30% of total material by weight. Balance of plant materials include concrete foundations, crushed stone surfacing, fencing, building debris, racking, transformer, inverters, and wiring.

Lifetime Extension – Operation past planned service lifetime through modest investment in repair, refurbishment, and continued O&M Decommissioning – Removal of service-aged PV components, including modules, balance-of-system (BOS) equipment, buildings, and facilities, as well as off-site transportation for equipment reuse, materials recovery and recycling, and residuals disposal, concluding with site restoration to green-field or other specified conditions Repowering – A major modification and investment in aging or distressed plants that typically involves a combination of decommissioning and installation activities, such as replacement of obsolete, unsafe, failing, damaged, or failed equipment to increase energy yield and value

Revamping – Removal, refurbishment, replacement, and reconfiguration of equipment—mainly inverters, modules, or both—to recover lost capacity, increase energy yield and asset value, and ensure warranty coverage, code compliance, and safety until the end of the performance period, including extensions Redevelopment – Equipment removal paired with advanced technologies—typically inverters, modules, and other components—to restore and increase capacity, energy yield, and asset value and meet requirements over extended and new project lifetimes

Development

Construction

Operation

Decommissioning

Component Manufacturing

Raw Materials Aquisition

TECHNOLOGY LIFE CYCLE

PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

Repowering Scope

In the EU, landfill bans prevent PV module disposal, and extended producer responsibility (EPR) under the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive requires manufacturers to finance PV module take-back and recycling, reducing costs for end users. In the U.S., there is no federal framework to promote recycling or landfill diversion. Project owners are often legally responsible for managing EOL modules under waste management regulations. As a solid waste, EOL PV modules are managed under the U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and characterized using the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test. If metals like Pb or Cd in the leachate exceed TCLP regulatory limits, the PV module is classified as hazardous and must be managed accordingly. EPA is currently considering universal waste (UW) regulations for PV modules. U.S. states are beginning to regulate or study module EOL and promote recycling: California (SB 489): Effective in 2021, PV modules are designated as UW, allowing for less-stringent collection restrictions compared to fully regulated hazardous waste. Hawaii (HAR 11-273.1): Effective in 2025, PV modules will also be designated as UW. Washington State (ESSB 5939): An EPR law will go into effect in 2025, with no charge to customers for reuse or recycling.

These regulations aim to encourage proper management of hazardous PV modules, which may be either recycled or landfilled by universal waste facilities. In addition to state-level efforts, several industry initiatives are emerging to promote recycling or study potential regulatory, policy, and standards options to advance PV circularity.

Options and prices for EOL PV module dispositioning vary by country and region, influenced by factors such as EOL management regulations, availability of collection and recycling infrastructure, proximity to recycling or waste management facilities, and technology type and condition. Reuse: Typically the most attractive option, both economically and environmentally, providing opportunities for revenue or tax savings. EOL service provider reported credits are $10-65/module. Recycling: For crystalline silicon modules, prices in the U.S. range from approximate $8 to $30 per module, based on recycler-reported prices, and may depend on type of module and transportation. Anecdotal quotes can be significantly higher. Landfilling: The cheapest option in the U.S., starting at around $0.50 to $1.80 per module. Hazardous Waste Disposal: Starts at $3.60 per module in the U.S., depending on volume and treatment method. The 2022 U.S. Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) includes appropriations to support recycling infrastructure authorized under the 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL). The legislation provides capital for scaling up materials recovery facilities to advance PV circularity. As dedicated PV recycling facilities are built and scaled up and landfill tipping fees rise, the gap between recycling and landfill disposal prices is narrowing in the U.S. market and elsewhere. This allows stakeholders to make more informed decisions that balance economic and environmental considerations.

Sources: EPRI 3002024944; DOE 2022

While solar PV is generally regarded as a renewable energy source with low environmental impacts, rising deployment of large ground-mounted PV systems and concerns about responsible waste management at end-of-life (EOL) has prompted community opposition. In parallel, solar project cancellations have been on the rise, due to perceived burdens on communities, such as impacts on agricultural land and native habitats (Pimentel Da Silva and Branco, 2018). On a global scale, social injustices, such as forced labor practices to supply raw materials for the manufacturing of new solar PV modules (U.S. DOL, 2024), illustrate the risk of human rights issues and injustices that can develop within the solar PV value chain. Strategies like repair, reuse, and recycling can extend the lifetime of solar PV modules, divert solar PV waste from landfills, and provide a domestic supply of secondary raw materials for manufacturing new products. With intentional planning and proactive community engagement, there is an opportunity for the PV circular economy to progress EEJ by equitably distributing the burdens and benefits of these solar PV circularity activities (Shaw et al., 2024; EPRI 3002027134). Within the solar PV circularity value chain, noise from infrastructure construction, pollution from manufacturing, and other burdens associated with solar PV circularity operations may necessitate EEJ action to cultivate public buy-in. Many EEJ practices are rooted in relationship building and empowering communities to have a say in energy transition decisions that affect them, such as where to site a new solar PV recycling facility (EPRI 3002028808). EEJ considerations, such as community and labor engagement, and diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility (DEIA), can be applied to solar PV projects to help avoid the sunk costs of project cancellations and reduce burdens on communities.

Demonstrate and scale-up high-value recycling solutions that increase yield and purity of recovered materials.

Assess the environmental performance of advanced recycling solutions.

Assess the feasibility of using recovered PV materials in upcycling and enhanced end-market applications.

Develop guidance on safe practices for reuse, repair, decommissioning, handling, transport, and storage of PV modules.

Evaluate the effectiveness of policy options, regulations, and incentives to promote PV circularity, including reuse and recycling.

Develop improved tools, testing specifications, screening protocols, and standards for efficient module condition assessment and sortation for reuse, including modules that have been repaired or refurbished.

Develop scalable methods to determine hazardous waste classification efficiently and accurately.

Collect and track EOL data to predict demand for future EOL services and availability of recycled materials more accurately.

Design reverse-logistics supply chain systems to optimize development of PV EOL module collection and management infrastructure.

Develop guidance on end-user demand signals to promote recycling and modules designed with enhanced sustainability.

Environmental Aspects of Solar Supplemental Program Webpage QUASAR (EU Horizon): https://quasar-project.eu/ Securing Critical Material Supply Chains by Enabling PhOtovoltaic CircuLARity, SOLAR (National Science Foundation): https://nsf-gov-resources.nsf.gov/2022-12/2022%20Cohort%20Track%20I%20Phase%201%20Award%20Announcements%20-%20Battelle%20Memorial%20Institute508.pdf?VersionId=H0mILT3qLTV.Kmi3.UbbMtJd2wOBZATE EPRI Research Activities on Renewable and Battery End-of-Life Management and Circularity. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2024. 3002030366.

Repowering Utility-Scale Solar Power Plants: Planning Recommendations and Best Practices. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2023. 3002018665. G.A. Heath, et al., A critical review of the circular economy for lithium-ion batteries and photovoltaic modules – status, challenges, and opportunities, J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 72 (6) (2022) 478–539, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10962247.2022.2068878. Shaw, S.L., Rencheck, M.L., Siegfried, G.A., and Libby, C., A Circular Economy Roadmap for Solar Photovoltaics. Solar Energy. Vol. 276, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2024.112580. EPRI 3002029481. Review of End-of-Life Solar Photovoltaic Services in the United States. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2024. 3002024944. Solar Photovoltaic, Lithium-Ion Battery, and Wind Turbine Blade End-of-Life Service Providers: 2023 Update. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2023. 3002025769. K. Wambach, C. Libby, S. Shaw, Advances in Photovoltaic Module Recycling: Literature Review and Update to Empirical Life Cycle Inventory Data and Patent Review. IEA PVPS Task 12, IEA PV Power Systems Programme. Report IEA-PVPS T12-28:2024. ISBN 978-3-907281-56-7. https://iea-pvps.org/key-topics/advances-in-module-recycling-literature-review-and-update-to-empirical-lci-data-and-patent-review/. EPRI 3002029577. Electric Sector Challenges in Circular Economies for Renewables and Batteries: Proceedings of the March 2021 Washington Seminar. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2021. 3002022231. Operationalizing Circular Economy Principles for Renewables and Batteries: Electric Power Company Practices. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2022. 3002023085. A Framework for the Application of Global Circular Economy Principles for the Electric Power Industry. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2021. 3002020568. Solar Photovoltaic End of Life: Options for Utility-Scale Plants and Knowledge Gaps. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2018. 3002014407. PV Plant Decommissioning Salvage Value: Conceptual Cost Estimate. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2018. 3002013116. Improving Recycling and Management of Renewable Energy Wastes: Universal Waste Regulations for Solar Panels and Lithium Batteries. Available at https://www.epa.gov/hw/improving-recycling-and-management-renewable-energy-wastes-universal-waste-regulations-solar, accessed 28 June 2024. Final Regulations: Photovoltaic (PV) Modules – Universal Waste Management. Available at https://dtsc.ca.gov/regs/pv-modules-universal-waste-management/, accessed 28 June 2024. Hawaii Administrative Rules, Title 11. Department of Health. Chapter 273.1. Hazardous Waste Management: Standards for Universal Waste Management. Accessed 28 June 2024 at https://health.hawaii.gov/shwb/files/2021/06/11-273.1.pdf. Final Bill Report: ESSB 5939. Accessed 28 June 2024 at https://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/biennium/2017-18/Pdf/Bill%20Reports/Senate/5939-S.E%20SBR%20FBR%2017%20E3.pdf. U.S. Department of Energy, Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, Available at: https://www.energy.gov/lpo/inflation-reduction-act-2022, accessed 28 June 2024. Land Conversion to Solar Generation: An Overview of Environmental and Social Considerations and Stakeholder Perspectives. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2023. 3002028346. Pimentel Da Silva, G. D., & Branco, D. A. C. (2018). Is floating photovoltaic better than conventional photovoltaic? Assessing environmental impacts. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 36(5), 390–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2018.1477498 Traced to Forced Labor: Solar Supply Chains Dependent on Polysilicon from Xinjiang, U.S. Department of Labor. Available at https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/images/storyboards/solar/Solar.pdf, accessed 23 August 2024. Equity and Environmental Justice Aspects Across the Energy System. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2023. 3002027134. Landscape Review of Community Engagement Leading Practices: Key Takeaways. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2024. 3002028808. H. Cui, G. Heath, T. Remo, D. Ravikumar, T. Silverman, M. Deceglie, M. Kempe, and J. Engel-Cox, “Technoeconomic analysis of high-value, crystalline silicon photovoltaic module recycling processes,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Vol. 238, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2022.111592

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Definitions

Equity and Environmental Justice Considerations for Renewable Circularity

Communities

Labor

Value Chain

Policy

Decision-making authority

Distribution of harms/benefits

Environmental quality

Meaningful engagement

Addressing misinformation

Diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility

Health and safety

High-quality jobs

Unions

Workforce development

Economic impact

Funding EEJactivities

Global and local impacts

Human rights

Inclusive siting

Value chain engagement onEEJ

Community benefits planning

Country/state EEJ policies

Material management

Global and local impacts Geopolitical obstacles in global supply chains for renewable technologies is an ongoing challenge. There have been issues with the international shipping of EOL solar PV modules to low-income/disadvantaged countries for reuse, where infrastructure for responsible management (such as recycling) may not exist, potentially resulting in illegal dumping. The control and extraction of resources can often be associated with human injustices, especially in mining. Circularity strategies have the potential to mitigate many of the environmental injustices associated with geopolitical priorities by promoting reuse and recycling of materials. Advancing circularity through an EEJ lens can promote the responsible use of materials around the world, increasing efficiency and minimizing the amount of waste.

Communities Project delays and cancellations have become commonplace for renewable energy projects. Engaging with communities from an EEJ perspective may help mitigate those risks and stimulate community-level acceptance, collaboration, and participation in circularity strategies for the renewables sector.

Labor Renewable circularity requires a skilled workforce, and from an EEJ perspective, considerations for labor may include creating high-quality skilled jobs that are equitably distributed and offer union participation, high-wages, on-the-job training, etc.

Value Chain The global market for repaired, second-life, refurbished, and recycled renewable energy materials and technologies is expanding. This growth provides opportunities to build markets on a foundation of EEJ considerations that foster positive economic impact for individuals and communities and enhance resource efficiency.

Policy EEJ policies can promote distributive, procedural, recognition, and restorative justice, alongside the equitable distribution of environmental, economic, and social benefits at the local community level. There are federal, state, and local policies that can affect renewable energy circularity, including EEJ policies and requirements in community benefits plans, DEIA plans, labor agreements, and the like.

Decision-making authority Providing communities with decision-making power over decisions that affect them is a leading practice discussed in EEJ literature. Gathering community input on circularity strategies for renewable energy projects and engaging with value chain partners can help identify the needs and wants of communities, cultivate relationships, and increase long-term acceptance of renewable circularity activities.

Distribution of harms/benefits Renewable energy EOL management can pose unjust burdens on communities if waste is managed improperly. EEJ mapping tools (CJEST & EJScreen) can help identify disadvantaged communities that require careful consideration when determining project benefits and/or burdens to individuals in that community as programs and infrastructure to support a circular economy is developed.

Environmental quality Analysis of renewable circularity activities across the value chain can identify environmental impacts like air quality through an EEJ lens to ensure that all communities, especially disadvantaged communities, receive equitable protection from any environmental hazards related to circularity activities.

Addressing misinformation The renewable industry consistently faces the spread of misinformation and disinformation that leads to public opposition. Through EEJ strategy and activities, it is possible to mitigate the spread of misinformation and disinformation by meaningfully engaging communities and empowering them with evidence-based information.

Diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility There are opportunities to build DEIA metrics/indicators into circular economy strategies and to collaborate with minority-serving institutions and other community-based organizations.

Health and safety The entire energy sector is rooted in health and safety, and this applies to the developing circular economy for renewables as well. Renewable circularity provides opportunities to collaborate with community-based organizations that are interested in providing health and safety training, certifications, and skill sharing for the renewable circularity workforce.

High-quality jobs There are opportunities for high-quality jobs to be offered in underserved communities where renewables are manufactured, operated, or managed at EOL to support a just transition as part of the energy transformation. Incorporating EEJ principles in circularity strategies can create stable and long-term employment opportunities with increased accessibility.

Unions Unions can ensure that jobs that advance renewable circularity adhere to fair labor standards. Unions can also collaborate with community and education centers to provide training and skill development programs, ensuring that workers are prepared for new job opportunities in the developing renewables circular economy.

Workforce development Circular economy activities that create new jobs provide an opportunity for workforce development. Centering training programs and benefits around the needs of local disadvantaged communities supports a just transition.

Economic impact Integrating circular economy objectives, such as increasing demand for second-life solar PV modules, with EEJ priorities, such as lowering energy bills through installation of reused solar modules on affordable housing developments, creates opportunities to foster positive economic impact across the value chain and for communities.

Funding EEJ activities Strong EEJ and circularity goals can enhance an energy company's value, making it an attractive option for investors, leading to increased funding. Many governments and businesses currently offer incentives to promote EEJ and circularity in renewable projects, such as, through required community benefits plans in U.S. Department of Energy funding proposals, including those designed to advance renewable circularity.

Inclusive siting There are opportunities to embed community perspectives in siting decisions, infrastructure build out, and overall circular economy planning and operations.

Value chain engagement on EEJ There are opportunities during each stage of renewable product and project life cycles to engage the domestic renewables circularity value chain and create forums for benchmarking, knowledge sharing, candid conversations, and problem solving. Considering EEJ in these conversations can help mitigate EEJ burdens globally. For example, value chain stakeholders can foster transparency with supply chain partners by discussing how to respond to geopolitical events that may have EEJ implications.

Community benefits planning Community benefits plans (CBPs) are agreements to prioritize community benefits in development activities, including EEJ considerations. Per the Inflation Reduction Act, the U.S. Department of Energy requires CBPs for new DOE-funded projects, including those focused on advancing renewable circularity. Key concepts that CBPs aim to advance include community and labor engagement, workforce development, DEIA, and Justice40. In addition to DOE, the practice of requiring project CBPs has been adopted by multiple federal departments and private funding entities.

Federal EEJ policies Federal EEJ policies, such as the Biden administration's Justice40 policy, the Inflation Reduction Act, the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, Executive Order 14008, and FERC order 1977 are examples of EEJ becoming a core component of federal energy sector policies.

Material management Material management policies vary by city, county, and state. Through the EEJ lens, ample community engagement could aid public acceptance of material management policies, such as solar PV recycling programs or wind turbine repair programs.

Meaningful engagement Meaningful community/stakeholder engagement can reveal wants, needs, and perspectives of local individuals and stakeholder groups that should be considered in developer strategies. It opens up a space to manage expectations and increase information sharing.

Human rights Historically, environmental injustices associated with mining for virgin materials have been core issues associated with renewables manufacturing. Circularity principles of repairing, reusing, refurbishing, and recycling renewable energy materials can decrease the demand for virgin material extraction.

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Manufacturers Module design for circularity (DfC) and integration with other plant components Ease of dismantling modules from racking during decommissioning Design for recyclability, i.e., ease of separation for disassembly and sorting Reduce mass or avoid critical and hazardous materials Streamline lifetime extension, reuse, and repurposing Source PV modules from more circular material streams, e.g., lower carbon footprint, material that is more recyclable, use of recycled content Increase PV module lifetime Voluntary labeling (including material passports, QR codes, bill of materials and ecolabels) with details on product composition, material origin, carbon footprint, justification of hazardous waste classification, and so on Adherence to voluntary standards, certificate programs, environmental product declarations (EPDs), and/or ecolabels Increase cross-generational PV product compatibility Takeback and recycling programs

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Owner, operator, and end-user Customer demand signals to promote responsible management Select PV products with relevant certifications, sustainability standards, and transparent labeling; Require manufacturers and integrators to provide module environmental attributes if not certified Apply pressure to develop new standards to alleviate uncertainty around performance, efficiency, and safety of second-life modules Purchase from manufacturers that offer takeback or recycling services Choose recyclers that have Sustainable Electronics Recycling International (SERI) R2 certification Establish environmental, social, and economic supply chain requirements for procurement and EOL management Design projects for long-term performance and reliability Component inspection during commissioning and maintenance over the project lifetime can be tailored to detect defects or early damage when potentially still repairable Choose to repair, refurbish, reuse, and repurpose modules or components whenever possible before they are moved to recycling Investigate lifetime extension and PV plant repowering opportunities Participation in demonstration projects to support testing of tools and processes to evaluate module condition and assess reuse potential

End-of-life (EOL) service providers Implement in-field, mobile, and/or centralized PV module condition assessment technologies Apply informed decision-making criteria for module resale, donation, or recycling Maximize net value of extracted PV materials to increase PV recycling profitability Investment in dedicated PV recycling equipment and infrastructure Robotic systems for separation, disassembly, and sorting to increase throughput Optimize operational activities, such as material handling methods, material flows, facility layout, recycling process parameters, and staging for transportation R&D to improve recycling efficiency, yield, and purity Identification of enhanced end markets for recovered material Workforce development for decommissioning, repowering, repair, reuse, and recycling operations

Cross-cutting Exchange of Information, such as waste generator knowledge, between manufacturer, owner, and EOL service provider to streamline hazardous waste determination Life cycle assessment (LCA) data from manufacturers, owner/operator/end-users, and EOL service providers to inform circular decision making Quantification of PV circularity through standardization of metrics, environmental, social, and governance (ESG) reporting, environmental product declarations (EPDs), and voluntary certification programs Participation in cross-functional and cross-industry working groups to inform development of circularity metrics, prioritize shared research needs, document technology and commercialization status, and inform policy activities Programs to expand owner/operator/end-user participation, such as EOL module collection programs and educational materials to promote PV circular economy practices

R&D community Accelerate advancement of a circular economy for the PV industry by addressing R&D Needs. Learn more below.

Repair/Refurbish

Repurpose

Linear Economy:

Circular Economy:

Reuse Utilize previously used PV modules in a second application with the same functionality or purpose. Modules may be repaired or refurbished before being reused. Repair/Refurbish Repair, restore, or improve the working condition, quality, or functionality of a PV module to upgrade the product, bring it back to its original state, or return to operational, thereby extending its lifetime. Remanufacture Disassemble and process a PV module into components for reuse in a product with the same functionality.

Repurpose Use a PV module or its components for a different functionality or purpose.

Recycle/Recover Recover or reclaim EOL PV module materials or energy from EOL PV module waste, returning them to a new manufacturing process, either in the same (closed loop) or different (open loop) applications.

Dispose Landfill disposal, in either RCRA Subtitle D (household and other non-hazardous wastes) or Subtitle C (hazardous waste management) facility.

EPRI-collected prices

Anecdotal prices and trends

EPRI-collected credit or resale prices